Double-Manual Harpsichords. The history of the harpsichord in France during the 18th century is intimately related to the practice of ravalement.

A modern orchestra concert hall: Philharmony in, Poland An orchestra ( or:; Italian: ) is a large typical of, which mixes instruments from different families, including bowed such as,, and, as well as,, and, each grouped in sections. Other instruments such as the and may sometimes appear in a fifth or may stand alone, as may the and, for performances of some modern compositions,. The term orchestra derives from the ὀορχήστρα ( orchestra), the name for the area in front of a stage in reserved for the. A full-size orchestra may sometimes be called a symphony orchestra or philharmonic orchestra. The actual number of musicians employed in a given performance may vary from seventy to over one hundred musicians, depending on the work being played and the size of the venue. The term chamber orchestra (and sometimes concert orchestra) usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles of about fifty musicians or fewer.

Orchestras that specialize in the of, for example, and, or repertoire, such as that of and, tend to be smaller than orchestras performing a repertoire, such as the of. The typical orchestra grew in size throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, reaching a peak with the large orchestras (of as many as 120 players) called for in the works of, and later,. In recent decades some orchestras have returned to the Baroque, Classical and Early Romantic seating of musicians; second violins to the right, cellos and violas to the center which gives the music a stereophonic effect.

Orchestras are usually led by a who directs the performance with movements of the hands and arms, often made easier for the musicians to see by use of a. The conductor unifies the orchestra, sets the and shapes the sound of the ensemble. The conductor also prepares the orchestra by leading rehearsals before the public concert, in which the conductor provides instructions to the musicians on their interpretation of the music being performed. The leader of the first violin section, commonly called the, also plays an important role in leading the musicians.

In the era (1600–1750), orchestras were often led by the concertmaster or by a chord-playing musician performing the parts on a or, a tradition that some 20th century and 21st century ensembles continue. Orchestras play a wide range of repertoire, including symphonies, and, for solo instruments, and as for, and some types of (e.g., ). Amateur orchestras include those made up of students from an elementary school or a high school,, and community orchestras; the latter two typically being made up of amateur musicians from a particular city or region.

Viotti Chamber Orchestra performing the 3rd movement of 's Divertimento in (K136) The typical symphony orchestra consists of four groups of related called the,,, and (,, and ). Other instruments such as the and may sometimes be grouped into a fifth section such as a or may stand alone, as may the and instruments. The orchestra, depending on the size, contains almost all of the standard instruments in each group. In the history of the orchestra, its instrumentation has been expanded over time, often agreed to have been standardized by the classical period and 's influence on the classical model. In the 20th century, new repertory demands expanded the instrumentation of the orchestra, resulting in a flexible use of the classical-model instruments and newly developed and in various combinations. The terms symphony orchestra and philharmonic orchestra may be used to distinguish different ensembles from the same locality, such as the and the. A symphony orchestra will usually have over eighty musicians on its roster, in some cases over a hundred, but the actual number of musicians employed in a particular performance may vary according to the work being played and the size of the venue.

Chamber orchestra usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles; a major chamber orchestra might employ as many as fifty musicians; some are much smaller than that. The term concert orchestra may also be used, as in the and the. Beethoven's influence [ ] The so-called 'standard complement' of doubled winds and brass in the orchestra from the first half of the 19th century is generally attributed to the forces called for. [ ] The 's instrumentation almost always included paired,,,, and. The exceptions to this are his,, and, which each specify a single.

Beethoven carefully calculated the expansion of this particular 'palette' in Symphonies 3, 5, 6, and 9 for an innovative effect. The third horn in the Symphony arrives to provide not only some harmonic flexibility, but also the effect of 'choral' brass in the Trio movement.,, and add to the triumphal finale of his. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help deliver the effect of storm and sunshine in the, also known as the Pastoral Symphony.

The asks for a second pair of horns, for reasons similar to the 'Eroica' (four horns has since become standard); Beethoven's use of piccolo, contrabassoon, trombones, and untuned —plus and vocal soloists—in his finale, are his earliest suggestion that the timbral boundaries of symphony might be expanded. For several decades after his death, symphonic was faithful to Beethoven's well-established model, with few exceptions. [ ] Expanded instrumentation [ ]. This section needs additional citations for.

Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) () Apart from the core orchestral complement, various other instruments are called for occasionally.

These include the,,,,, and., for example, appear in some 19th- through 21st-century scores. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example 's orchestration of 's and 's, the saxophone is included in other works, such as Ravel's, 's, ' Symphonies and and 's, and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble.

The is featured in a few late and works, usually playing parts marked 'tenor tuba', including 's, and 's. The, a modified member of the horn family, appears in 's cycle and several other works by Strauss,, and others; it has a prominent role in 's. Cornets appear in 's ballet, 's, and several orchestral works.

Unless these instruments are played by members 'doubling' on another instrument (for example, a trombone player changing to euphonium or a bassoon player switching to for a certain passage), orchestras typically hire musicians to augment their regular ensemble. The 20th-century orchestra was far more flexible than its predecessors. In Beethoven's and 's time, the orchestra was composed of a fairly standard core of instruments, which was very rarely modified by composers. As time progressed, and as the Romantic period saw changes in accepted modification with composers such as Berlioz and Mahler; some composers used multiple harps and such as the.

During the 20th century, the modern orchestra was generally standardized with the modern instrumentation listed below. Nevertheless, by the mid- to late 20th century, with the development of, instrumentation could practically be hand-picked by the composer (e.g., to add such as, such as, non-Western instruments, or other instruments not traditionally used in orchestra).

With this history in mind, the orchestra can be analyzed in five periods: the, the, early/mid- era, late-Romantic/early and. Woodwinds 2–4 (1 doubling ) 2–4 (1 doubling ) 2–4 (1-2 doubling and/or E ♭ Clarinet) 2–4 (1 doubling ) (1 or more of various types) Brass 4–8 (usually double) in F/B ♭ (in France:; in Vienna: ) 3–6 in B ♭, C 3–6 (1–2 ) 1–2 (1 or more /) (1 or more ) Keyboards 1 1 ( in some works) Strings 16 1 14 2 12 10 8 1–2 Percussion 4–5 (played by one timpanist) (in some works) Other percussion instruments, including ethnic or instruments specified by composers Other As required by the compositions in the program, various or may be used in the orchestra. These performers are not typically permanent orchestra members. They are typically freelancers hired on contract for one or more concerts. Instruments may include: • • • • • Other • Non-musical instruments such as a or player Organization [ ].

Conducting an orchestra Among the instrument groups and within each group of instruments, there is a generally accepted hierarchy. Every instrumental group (or section) has a principal who is generally responsible for leading the group and playing orchestral solos.

The violins are divided into two groups, first violin and second violin, with the second violins playing in lower registers than the first violins, playing an part, or harmonizing the melody played by the first violins. The principal first violin is called the (or 'leader' in the UK) and is not only considered the leader of the string section, but the second-in-command of the entire orchestra, behind only the. The concertmaster leads the pre-concert and handles musical aspects of orchestra management, such as determining the bowings for the violins or for all of the string section. The concertmaster usually sits to the conductor's left, closest to the audience. There is also a principal second violin, a principal viola, a principal cello and a principal bass. The principal trombone is considered the leader of the low brass section, while the principal trumpet is generally considered the leader of the entire brass section. While the oboe often provides the tuning note for the orchestra (due to 300-year-old convention), no principal is the leader of the woodwind section though in woodwind ensembles, often the flute is leader.

Instead, each principal confers with the others as equals in the case of musical differences of opinion. Most sections also have an assistant principal (or co-principal or associate principal), or in the case of the first violins, an assistant concertmaster, who often plays a part in addition to replacing the principal in his or her absence. A section string player plays in with the rest of the section, except in the case of divided ( divisi) parts, where upper and lower parts in the music are often assigned to 'outside' (nearer the audience) and 'inside' seated players. Where a solo part is called for in a string section, the section leader invariably plays that part.

The section leader (or principal) of a string section is also responsible for determining the bowings, often based on the bowings set out by the concertmaster. In some cases, the principal of a string section may use a slightly different bowing than the concertmaster, to accommodate the requirements of playing their instrument (e.g., the double-bass section).

Principals of a string section will also lead entrances for their section, typically by lifting the bow before the entrance, to ensure the section plays together. Tutti wind and brass players generally play a unique but non-solo part. Section percussionists play parts assigned to them by the principal percussionist. In modern times, the musicians are usually directed by a, although early orchestras did not have one, giving this role instead to the or the playing the. Some modern orchestras also do, particularly smaller orchestras and those specializing in historically accurate (so-called 'period') performances of and earlier music. The most frequently performed repertoire for a orchestra is Western.

However, orchestras are used sometimes in (e.g., to accompany a rock or pop band in a concert), extensively in, and increasingly often in. Orchestras are also used in the genre. The term 'orchestra' can also be applied to a jazz ensemble, for example in the performance of music. Selection and appointment of members [ ] In the 2000s, all tenured members of a professional orchestra normally for positions in the ensemble. Performers typically play one or more solo pieces of the auditionee's choice, such as a movement of a, a solo movement, and a variety of excerpts from the orchestral literature that are advertised in the audition poster (so the auditionees can prepare).

The excerpts are typically the most technically challenging parts and solos from the orchestral literature. Orchestral auditions are typically held in front of a panel that includes the, the, the principal player of the section for which the auditionee is applying and possibly other principal players and regular orchestra members.

The most promising candidates from the first round of auditions are invited to return for a second or third round of auditions, which allows the conductor and the panel to compare the best candidates. Performers may be asked to orchestral music. The final stage of the audition process in some orchestras is a test week, in which the performer plays with the orchestra for a week or two, which allows the conductor and principal players to see if the individual can function well in an actual rehearsal and performance setting. There are a range of different employment arrangements. The most sought-after positions are permanent, positions in the orchestra.

Orchestras also hire musicians on contracts, ranging in length from a single concert to a full season or more. Contract performers may be hired for individual concerts when the orchestra is doing an exceptionally large late-Romantic era orchestral work, or to substitute for a permanent member who is sick. A professional musician who is hired to perform for a single concert is sometimes called a 'sub'.

Some contract musicians may be hired to replace permanent members for the period that the permanent member is on or leave. Gender of ensembles [ ] Historically, major professional orchestras have been mostly or entirely composed of male musicians. The first have been. The, for example, did not accept women to permanent membership until 1997, far later than comparable orchestras (the other orchestras ranked among the world’s top five by in 2008). The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was the.

In February 1996, the Vienna Philharmonic's principal flute, Dieter Flury, told that accepting women would be 'gambling with the emotional unity ( emotionelle Geschlossenheit) that this organism currently has'. In April 1996, the orchestra’s press secretary wrote that 'compensating for the expected leaves of absence' of would be a problem.

In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was 'facing protests during a [US] tour' by the and the. Finally, 'after being held up to increasing ridicule even in socially conservative Austria, members of the orchestra gathered [on 28 February 1997] in an extraordinary meeting on the eve of their departure and agreed to admit a woman, Anna Lelkes, as harpist.' As of 2013, the orchestra has six female members; one of them, violinist Albena Danailova became one of the orchestra’s in 2008, the first woman to hold that position.

In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the orchestra's membership. VPO president Clemens Hellsberg said the VPO now uses completely screened. In 2013, an article in Mother Jones stated that while '[m]any prestigious orchestras have significant female membership—women outnumber men in the 's violin section—and several renowned ensembles, including the, the, and the Minnesota Symphony, are led by women violinists', the, brass, and percussion sections of major orchestras '.are still predominantly male.' A 2014 BBC article stated that the '.introduction of, where a prospective instrumentalist performs behind a screen so that the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial prejudice, has seen the gender balance of traditionally male-dominated symphony orchestras gradually shift.'

Amateur ensembles [ ] There are also a variety of amateur orchestras: • School orchestras: These orchestras consist of students from an elementary or secondary school. They may be students from a music class or program or they may be drawn from the entire school body. School orchestras are typically led by a. • University or conservatory orchestras: These orchestras consist of students from a university or music conservatory. In some cases, university orchestras are open to all students from a university, from all programs. Larger universities may have two or more university orchestras: one or more orchestras made up of music majors (or, for major music programs, several tiers of music major orchestras, ranked by skill level) and a second orchestra open to university students from all academic programs (e.g., science, business, etc.) who have previous classical music experience on an orchestral instrument.

University and conservatory orchestras are led by a conductor who is typically a or instructor at the university or conservatory. •: These orchestras consist of teens and young adults drawn from an entire city or region. The age range in youth orchestras varies between different ensembles.

In some cases, youth orchestras may consist of teens or young adults from an entire country (e.g., Canada's National Youth Orchestra). • Community orchestras: These orchestras consist of amateur performers drawn from an entire city or region.

Community orchestras typically consist mainly of adult amateur musicians. Community orchestras range in level from beginner-level orchestras which rehearse music without doing formal performances in front of an audience to intermediate-level ensembles to advanced amateur groups which play standard professional orchestra repertoire. In some cases, university or conservatory music students may also be members of community orchestras. While community orchestra members are mostly unpaid amateurs, in some orchestras, a small number of professionals may be hired to act as principal players and section leaders. Repertoire and performances [ ] Orchestras play a wide range of repertoire ranging from 17th-century, 18th century to 20th century and 21st-century symphonies. Gujarati Font Download For Android Phone. Orchestras have become synonymous with the, an extended in Western that typically contains multiple movements which provide contrasting keys and tempos. Symphonies are notated in a, which contains all the instrument parts.

The uses the score to study the symphony before rehearsals and decide on their interpretation (e.g., tempos, articulation, phrasing, etc.), and to follow the music during rehearsals and concerts, while leading the ensemble. Orchestral musicians play from parts containing just the notated music for their instrument. A small number of symphonies also contain vocal parts (e.g., 's ). Orchestras also perform, a term originally applied to the instrumental introduction to an opera. During the early Romantic era, composers such as and began to use the term to refer to independent, self-existing instrumental, programmatic works that presaged genres such as the, a form devised by in several works that began as dramatic overtures. These were 'at first undoubtedly intended to be played at the head of a programme'. In the 1850s the concert overture began to be supplanted by the symphonic poem.

Orchestras also play with instrumental soloists in. During concertos, the orchestra plays an role to the soloist (e.g., a solo violinist or pianist) and, at times, introduces musical themes or interludes while the soloist is not playing. Orchestras also play during,, some works and some choral works (both sacred works such as Masses and secular works). In operas and ballets, the orchestra accompanies the singers and dancers, respectively, and plays overtures and interludes where the melodies played by the orchestra take centre stage.

Performances [ ] In the Baroque era, orchestras performed in a range of venues, including at the fine houses of aristocrats, in opera halls and in churches. Some wealthy aristocrats had an orchestra in residence at their estate, to entertain them and their guests with performances.

During the Classical era, as composers increasing sought out financial support from the general public, orchestra concerts were increasingly held in public concert halls, where music lovers could buy tickets to hear the orchestra. Of course, aristocratic patronage of orchestras continued during the Classical era, but this went on alongside public concerts. In the 20th and 21st century, orchestras found a new patron: governments. Many orchestras in North America and Europe receive part of their funding from national, regional level governments (e.g., state governments in the U.S.) or city governments. These government subsidies make up part of orchestra revenue, along with ticket sales, charitable donations (if the orchestra is a registered as a charity) and other fundraising activities. With the invention of successive technologies, including,, and -based and downloading of concert videos, orchestras have been able to find new revenue sources. Issues in performance [ ] Faking [ ].

Main article: One of the 'great unmentionable [topics] of orchestral playing' is 'faking', the process by which an orchestral musician gives the '.impression of playing every note as written', typically for a very challenging passage that is very high or very fast, while not actually playing the notes that are in the printed music part. An article in states that all orchestral musicians, even those in the top orchestras, occasionally 'fake' certain passages. One reason that musicians 'fake' is because there are not enough rehearsals.

Another factor is the extreme challenges in 20th century and 21st century contemporary pieces; professionals interviewed by the magazine said 'faking' was '.necessary in anything from ten to almost ninety per cent of some modern works. Professional players who were interviewed were of a consensus that faking may be acceptable when a part is not written well for the instrument, but faking 'just because you haven’t practised' the music is not acceptable. History [ ] Instrumental technology [ ]. And the Philadelphia Orchestra at the March 2, 1916 American premiere of 's. The invention of the piston and rotary valve by and, both, in 1815, was the first in a series of innovations which impacted the orchestra, including the development of modern keywork for the flute by and the innovations of in the woodwinds, notably the invention of the. These advances would lead to write a landmark book on, which was the first systematic treatise on the use of instrumental sound as an expressive element of music.

Wagner's influence [ ] The next major expansion of symphonic practice came from 's orchestra, founded to accompany his musical dramas. Wagner's works for the stage were scored with unprecedented scope and complexity: indeed, his score to calls for six. Thus, Wagner envisioned an ever-more-demanding role for the conductor of the theatre orchestra, as he elaborated in his influential work On Conducting. This brought about a revolution in orchestral, and set the style for orchestral performance for the next eighty years. Wagner's theories re-examined the importance of,, bowing of string instruments and the role of principals in the orchestra. Conductors who studied his methods would go on to be influential themselves.

[ ] 20th century orchestra [ ] As the early 20th century dawned, symphony orchestras were larger, better funded, and better trained than ever before; consequently, composers could compose larger and more ambitious works. The influence of was particularly innovational; in his later symphonies, such as the mammoth, Mahler pushes the furthest boundaries of orchestral size, employing huge forces. By the late Romantic era, orchestras could support the most enormous forms of symphonic expression, with huge string sections, massive brass sections and an expanded range of percussion instruments. With the recording era beginning, the standards of performance were pushed to a new level, because a recorded symphony could be listened to closely and even minor errors in intonation or ensemble, which might not be noticeable in a live performance, could be heard by critics. As recording technologies improved over the 20th and 21st centuries, eventually small errors in a recording could be 'fixed' by audio editing. Some older conductors and composers could remember a time when simply 'getting through' the music as best as possible was the standard.

Combined with the wider audience made possible by recording, this led to a renewed focus on particular star conductors and on a high standard of orchestral execution. Counter-revolution [ ] With the advent of the early music movement, smaller orchestras where players worked on execution of works in styles derived from the study of older treatises on playing became common. These include the, the under the direction of Sir and the under, among others. Dil Mil Gaye Serial Video Download. [ ] Recent trends in the United States [ ] In the United States, the late 20th century saw a crisis of funding and support for orchestras.

The size and cost of a symphony orchestra, compared to the size of the base of supporters, became an issue that struck at the core of the institution. Few orchestras could fill auditoriums, and the time-honored season-subscription system became increasingly anachronistic, as more and more listeners would buy tickets on an ad hoc basis for individual events. Orchestral endowments and—more centrally to the daily operation of American orchestras—orchestral donors have seen investment portfolios shrink or produce lower yields, reducing the ability of donors to contribute; further, there has been a trend toward donors finding other social causes more compelling. Also, while government funding is less central to American than European orchestras, cuts in such funding are still significant for American ensembles. Finally, the drastic falling-off of revenues from recording, tied to no small extent to changes in the recording industry itself, began a period of change that has yet to reach its conclusion. Orchestras that have gone into Chapter 11 bankruptcy include the (in April 2011), and the, in December 2010; orchestras that have gone into Chapter 7 bankruptcy and have ceased operations include the in 2006, the in March 2011, the in April 2011, and the in June 2011.

The Festival of Orchestras in Orlando, Florida ceased operations at the end of March, 2011. One source of financial difficulties that received notice and criticism was high salaries for music directors of US orchestras, which led several high-profile conductors to take pay cuts in recent years. Music administrators such as and argued that new music, new means of presenting it, and a renewed relationship with the community could revitalize the symphony orchestra. The American critic has argued in detail that orchestras must revise their approach to music, performance, the concert experience, marketing, public relations, community involvement, and presentation to bring them in line with the expectations of 21st-century audiences immersed in popular culture. It is not uncommon for contemporary composers to use unconventional instruments, including various synthesizers, to achieve desired effects. Many, however, find more conventional orchestral configuration to provide better possibilities for color and depth.

Composers like often employ Romantic-size orchestras, as in Adams' opera; and others may be more free, yet still identify size-boundaries. Glass in particular has recently turned to conventional orchestras in works like the and the. Along with a decrease in funding, some U.S. Orchestras have reduced their overall personnel, as well as the number of players appearing in performances.

The reduced numbers in performance are usually confined to the, since the numbers here have traditionally been flexible (as multiple players typically play from the same part). Role of conductor [ ]. Using a, conducts the in Taipei, Taiwan Conducting is the art of directing a performance, such as an orchestral. The primary duties of the conductor are to set the, ensure correct entries by various members of the ensemble, and to 'shape' the phrasing where appropriate. To convey their ideas and interpretation, a conductor communicates with their musicians primarily through hand gestures, typically though not invariably with the aid of a, and may use other gestures or signals, such as eye contact with relevant performers.

A conductor's directions will almost invariably be supplemented or reinforced by verbal instructions or suggestions to their musicians in rehearsal prior to a performance. The conductor typically stands on a raised podium with a large music stand for the, which contains the for all the instruments and/or voices.

Since the mid-18th century, most conductors have not played an instrument when conducting, [ ] although in earlier periods of history, leading an ensemble while playing an instrument was common. In from the 1600s to the 1750s, the group would typically be led by the or first violinist (see ), an approach that in modern times has been revived by several music directors for music from this period. Conducting while playing a or may also be done with. Communication is typically non-verbal during a performance (this is strictly the case in, but in jazz big bands or large pop ensembles, there may be occasional spoken instructions, such as a 'count in'). However, in, frequent interruptions allow the conductor to give verbal directions as to how the music should be played or sung. Conductors act as guides to the orchestras and/or choirs they conduct.

They choose the works to be performed and study their, to which they may make certain adjustments (e.g., regarding tempo, articulation, phrasing, repetitions of sections, and so on), work out their interpretation, and relay their vision to the performers. They may also attend to organizational matters, such as scheduling rehearsals, planning a concert season, hearing and selecting members, and promoting their ensemble in the media.

Orchestras,, and other sizable such as are usually led by conductors. Conductorless orchestras [ ].

Main article: In the era (1600-1750), most orchestras were led by one of the musicians, typically the principal first violin, called the. The concertmaster would lead the tempo of pieces by lifting his or her bow in a rhythmic manner.

Leadership might also be provided by one of the chord-playing instrumentalists playing the part which was the core of most Baroque instrumental ensemble pieces. Typically, this would be a player, a or a or player. A keyboard player could lead the ensemble with his or her head, or by taking one of the hands off the keyboard to lead a more difficult tempo change. A lutenist or theorbo player could lead by lifting the instrument neck up and down to indicate the tempo of a piece, or to lead a during a cadence or ending. In some works which combined and instrumental ensembles, two leaders were sometimes used: a concertmaster to lead the instrumentalists and a chord-playing performer to lead the singers. During the (ca.

1720-1800), the practice of using chordal instruments to play basso continuo was gradually phased out, and it disappeared completely by 1800. Instead, ensembles began to use conductors to lead the orchestra's tempos and playing style, while the concertmaster played an additional leadership role for the musicians, especially the string players, who imitate the bowstroke and playing style of the concertmaster, to the degree that is feasible for the different stringed instruments. In 1922, the idea of a conductor-less orchestra was revived in post-. The symphony orchestra was formed without a conductor, because the founders believed that the ensemble should be modeled on the ideal state, in which all people are equal. As such, its members felt that there was no need to be led by the dictatorial baton of a conductor; instead they were led by a, which determined tempos and playing styles. Although it was a partial success within the Soviet Union, the principal difficulty with the concept was in changing during performances, because even if the committee had issued a decree about where a tempo change should take place, there was no leader in the ensemble to guide this tempo change. The orchestra survived for ten years before cultural politics disbanded it by taking away its funding.

In Western nations, some ensembles, such as the, based in New York City, have had more success with conductorless orchestras, although decisions are likely to be deferred to some sense of leadership within the ensemble (for example, the principal wind and string players, notably the concertmaster). Others have returned to the tradition of a principal player, usually a violinist, being the artistic director and running rehearsal and leading concerts. Examples include the, Amsterdam Sinfonietta & Candida Thompson and the. As well, as part of the movement, some 20th and 21st century orchestras have revived the Baroque practice of having no conductor on the podium for Baroque pieces, using the concertmaster or a chord-playing performer (e.g., harpsichord or organ) to lead the group. Multiple conductors [ ] Offstage instruments [ ] Some orchestral works specify that an should be used or that other instruments from the orchestra should be positioned off-stage or behind the stage, to create a haunted, mystical effect. To ensure that the offstage instrumentalist(s) play in time, sometimes a sub-conductor will be stationed offstage with a clear view of the principal conductor.

Examples include the ending of ' from 's. The principal conductor leads the large orchestra, and the sub-conductor relays the principal conductor's tempo and gestures to the offstage musician (or musicians). One of the challenges with using two conductors is that the second conductor may get out of synchronization with the main conductor, or she may mis-convey (or misunderstand) the principal conductor's gestures, which can lead to the offstage instruments being out of time. In the late 20th century and early 21st century, some orchestras use a pointed at the principal conductor and a set in front of the offstage performer(s), instead of using two conductors.

Contemporary music [ ] The techniques of and polytempo music have led a few 20th and 21st century composers to write music where multiple orchestras or ensembles perform simultaneously. These trends have brought about the phenomenon of polyconductor music, wherein separate sub-conductors conduct each group of musicians. Usually, one principal conductor conducts the sub-conductors, thereby shaping the overall performance. In 's ' which includes three conductors: the primary conductor of the orchestra, a secondary conductor directing an off-stage, and a tertiary conductor directing percussion and harp. One example in the late century orchestral music is 's, for three orchestras, which are placed around the audience. This way, the 'sound masses' could be spacialized, as in an. Gruppen was premiered in Cologne, in 1958, conducted by Stockhausen, and.

It has been [ ] performed by, John Carewe and. See also [ ].